EOTI Explosive Ordnance Technologies International

Bomb disposal is the process by which hazardous explosive devices are rendered safe. "Bomb disposal" is an all encompassing term to describe the separate, but interrelated functions in the following fields:

* military – Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD)
* public safety – Public Safety Bomb Disposal (PSBT), Bomb Squad
* civilian – Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)

History
World War I and the interwar period
Bomb Disposal became a formalised field during World War I. The swift mass production of munitions led to many manufacturing defects, and a large proportion of shells fired by both sides were found to be "duds".[1] These were hazardous to attacker and defender alike. In response, the British dedicated a section of Ordnance Examiners from the RASC (latterly the RAOC) to handle the growing problem.

In 1918, the Germans developed a delayed-action fuse that would later develop into more sophisticated weaponry during the 1930s, as Nazi Germany began its secret course of arms development. These tests led to the development of UXBs (unexploded bombs), pioneered by Herbert Ruehlemann of Rheinmetall, and first employed during the Spanish Civil War of 1936-37. Such delayed-action bombs provoked terror because of the uncertainty of time. The Germans saw that unexploded bombs caused far more chaos and disruption than bombs that exploded immediately. This caused them to increase their use of delayed-action bombs later in World War II. The Germans were also the first to develop and use proximity sensitive fusing on air dropped bombs. Allied UXO specialists, unaware that movement on or around the fuse caused detonation, took a number of casualties. They believed these fuses were set at varying time increments in order to cause unpredictable destruction. Allies began calling these proximity devices Variable Time or VT fuses. This label is still used on many proximity fuzes today.

Bomb disposal staff would soon face munitions designed to kill civilians and ultimately, themselves. Initially there were no specialised tools, training, or core knowledge available, and as Ammunition Technicians learned how to safely neutralize one variant of munition, the enemy would add or change parts to make neutralization efforts more hazardous. This trend of cat-and-mouse extends even to the present day, and the techniques used to defuse munitions are held to high standards of secrecy.
World War II
Modern EOD Technicians across the world can trace their heritage to the Blitz, when the United Kingdom's cities were subjected to extensive bombing raids by Nazi Germany. In addition to conventional air raids, unexploded bombs (UXBs) also took their toll on population and morale, paralyzing vital services and communications. These delayed-action explosives provoked terror and uncertainty, with complex fuzes equipped with anti-tampering devices. Troops responded on the ground by devising methods to inert and remove deadly bombs and anti-personnel mines.
United States EOD history
The United States War Department felt the British Bomb Disposal experience could be a valuable asset, based on reports from U.S. Army, Navy, and Marine Corps observers at Melksham Royal Air Force Base at Wiltshire, England in 1940. The next year, the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) and War Department both sponsored a Bomb Disposal program, which gradually fell under military governance due to security and technical reasons. OCD personnel continued to train in UXB reconnaissance throughout the war. After Pearl Harbor, the British sent instructors to Aberdeen Proving Ground, where the U.S. Army would inaugurate a formal Bomb Disposal school under the Ordnance Corps.

Lt. Col. Geoffrey Yates (RE) and his British colleagues also helped establish the USN Mine Disposal School at the Naval Gun Factory, Washington, DC. Not to be outdone, the US Navy, under the command of Lieutenant Commander Draper L. Kauffman (who would go on to found the Underwater Demolition Teams -- better known as UDTs or the U.S. Navy Frogmen), created the USN Bomb Disposal School at University Campus, Washington, D.C. U.S. Ordnance and British Royal Engineers would forge a partnership that worked quite effectively in war -- a friendship persisting to this day.

1942 was a banner year for the fledgling EOD program. U.S. Army Lt. Col. Thomas Kane, who began in 1940 as a Bomb Disposal Instructor in the School of Civilian Defense, traveled with eight other troops to the UK for initial EOD training. Kane took over the US Army Bomb Disposal School at Aberdeen Proving Ground. Three members of Kane's training mission later served as Bomb Disposal squad commanders in the battlefield: Ronald L. Felton (12th Bomb Disposal Squad Separate) in Italy, Joseph C. Pilcher (17th Bomb Disposal Squad Separate) in France and Germany, and Richard Metress (209th Bomb Disposal Squad Separate) in the Philippines Islands. Captain Metress and most of his squad were killed in 1945 while dismantling a Japanese IED.

Graduates of the Aberdeen School formed the first Army Bomb Disposal companies, starting with the 231st Ordnance Bomb Disposal Company. The now-familiar shoulder emblem for Army EOD Technicians, a red bomb on an oval, black background was approved for them to wear. Following initial deployments in North Africa and Sicily, U.S. Army commanders registered their disapproval of these cumbersome units. In 1943, companies were phased out, to be replaced by mobile seven-man squads in the field. In 1944, Col. Thomas Kane oversaw all European Theater Bomb Disposal operations, starting with reconnaissance training for the U.S. forces engaging the Germans on D-Day. Unfortunately, the Pacific Theater lacked a similar administration.

Late in 1942, the first US Navy EOD casualty was recorded. Ensign Howard, USNR, was performing a render-safe procedure against a German moored mine when it detonated. Only a few months later, the first two Army EOD fatalities occurred during the Aleutian Islands campaign. While conducting EOD operations on Attu Island, LT Rodger & T/SGT Rapp (Commander and NCOIC of 5th Ordnance Bomb Disposal Squad) were fatally injured by unexploded ordnance.

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US Navy explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) divers.
Overall, about forty Americans were killed outright performing the specialized services of bomb and mine disposal in World War II. Scores more were maimed or injured during combat operations requiring ordnance support. At Schwammanuel Dam in Germany, two Bomb Disposal squads acting as a "T Force" were exposed to enemy mortar and small arms fire. Captain Marshall Crow (18th Squad) took serious wounds, even as his party drove German defenders from their positions.'

Ironically, the only major ordnance attack against the continental U.S. would be handled by the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, who dealt with the Japanese Fu-Go balloon bomb menace in 1945. The all-black 555th "Smokejumpers" were trained by ordnance personnel to defuse these incendiary bombs before they could kill civilians or start forest fires.

Following the war, U.S. Bomb Disposal Technicians continued to clear Nazi and Japanese stockpiles, remove UXO from battlefields, while training host nation (HN) troops to do these tasks. This established a tradition for U.S. EOD services to operate during peace as well as war.

Colonel Kane remained in contact with EOD until his retirement in 1955. He urged reforms in the Bomb Disposal organization and training policy. Wartime errors were rectified in 1947 when Army personnel started attending a new school at Indian Head, MD, under U.S. Navy direction. This course was named the Explosive Ordnance Disposal Course, governing training in all basic types of ammunition and projectiles.

1947 also saw the Army Air Corps separate and become the US Air Force, gaining their own EOD branch. That same year, the forerunner of the EOD Technology Center, the USN Bureau of Naval Weapons, charged with research, development, test, and evaluation of EOD tools, tactics and procedures was born. 1949 marked the official end of an era, as Army and Navy Bomb Disposal squads were reclassified into Explosive Ordnance Disposal units.

In 1953, reflecting the trend in name changing, the EOD School formally became the Naval School, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (NAVSCOLEOD). Two years later, the Army Bomb Disposal School would close, making Indian Head the sole Joint Service EOD School in the US. That is, until 1985, when work began on the current EOD School at Eglin AF Base, Florida.

The current, most recognizable distinctive item of wear by EOD Technicians, affectionately referred to as the ‘crab’, began uniform wear as the Basic EOD Qualification Badge in 1957. The Master Badge would not appear until 1969. (See picture on the right)

On 31 March 2004, the U.S. Army EOD Headquarters at Fort Gillem, Georgia dedicated its new building to Col. Thomas J. Kane (1900-65). Whether Kane Hall remains after the Bush Administration's recent base closure announcement remains to be seen.
Northern Ireland 1969 -
The Ammunition Technicians of the Royal Logistic Corps (formerly RAOC) have become the world's foremost experts in IED disposal after many years of dealing with bombs planted by the IRA. The bombs the IRA employed in their war on British rule ranged from very simple pipe bombs to extremely sophisticated victim operated devices. The modern day roadside bomb was in use by the IRA from the early 1970's onwards, constantly evolving over time with different types of explosives and triggers.

The creation of a specialist Army unit 321 EOD (Now 11 EOD Regiment RLC) was required to tackle the growing rise of insurgents violence and willingness to use IED's against both civilian and military targets. The units radio callsign was Felix in allusion to the cat with nine lives and led to the phrase "Fetch Felix" whenever a suspect device was encountered and became the title of the 1981 book "Fetch Felix" .

As such the first personnel sent into Iraq in 2003 were, amongst others, British Bomb Disposal experts of 11 EOD Regiment RLC.
EOD in low intensity conflicts
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IDF American Andros EOD robot. This paticular model is the MarkV-A1
The eruption of low intensity conflicts and terrorism waves at the beginning of the 21st century caused further development in the techniques and methods of Bomb Disposal. EOD Operators and Technicians had to adapt to rapidly evolving methods of constructing improvised explosive devices ranging from shrapnel-filled explosive belts to 100-kg IED charges. Since improvised explosives are generally unreliable and very unstable they pose great risk to the public and especially to the EOD Operator, trying to render them safe. Therefore, new methods like greater reliance on remote techniques, such as advanced remotely operated vehicles such as EOD robots or armored bulldozers evolved. The US Army and the Israeli Defence Forces both have remote-control EOD vehicles and EOD bulldozers (the D7 MCAP and the armored D9R respectively). Other developments include using Advanced Electronic Countermeasures to prevent a device from being detonated remotely.

The British Armed Forces have become experts in IED disposal after many years of dealing with bombs 'planted' by the IRA. These came in many different forms, particularly car bombs rigged to detonate via a variety of manners. As such the first personnel sent into Iraq in 2003 were, amongst others, British Bomb Disposal experts of 11 EOD Regiment RLC.

During the al-Aksa Intifada, Israeli EOD forces have disarmed and detonated thousands of explosive charges, lab bombs and explosive ammunition (such as rockets). Two Israeli EOD teams gained high reputation for leading the efforts in that area: the Army's Israeli Engineering Corps' Sayeret Yaalom and the Israeli Border Guard Gaza-area EOD team.

In Iraq, the coalition forces have to face many IEDs (improvised explosive devices) on travel routes. Such charges can easily destroy light vehicles such as the HMMWV but large one can even destroy main battle tank such as the M1A1 Abrams. Side charges caused many casualties and are major threat in Iraq along the car bombs and suicide bombers. These are the main challenge of the EOD forces today.
Fields of operations
EOD
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EOD Operator removes a piece of unexploded ordnance.
In the United Kingdom, EOD Operators are held within all three Services, the most well known being the Ammunition Technicians of the Royal Logistic Corps. Each Service deals has differing responsibilities for UXO, however they will often work closely on operations. Ammunition Technicians deal with the more complicated areas of bomb disposal namely improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Ammunition Technicians are also experts in chemical, biological, incendiary, radiological ("dirty bombs"), and nuclear weapons. They provide support to VIPs, help civilian authorities with bomb problems, teach personnel from all three services about bomb safety, and a variety of other tasks. The Royal Engineers of 33 Engineer Regiment (EOD) provide EOD support for conventional munitions on operations. Sometimes, people confuse engineers or sappers with Ammunition Technicians. However, while complimentary, and often working closely, they have differing skill sets with RAF, Navy or RE Bomb Disposal Operators handling conventional munitions, Royal Engineers dealing providing search advice and assets and the Royal Logistic Corps providing Improvised Explosive Device Disposal.

All prospective Ammunition Technicians attend a grueling course of instruction at The Army School of Ammunition and the Felix Centre, UK. The timeframe for a Ammunition Technician to complete all necessary courses prior to finally be placed on a EOD team is around 36 months. Whereas the Engineer EOD training period is about 3 weeks.

Ammunition Technicians, having completed their training will be posted to a variety of units involved in IEDD, EOD or plain conventional ammunition duties. Until recent times the most prestigious EOD unit in the world was 321 EOD, that has now been surpassed by 11 EOD Regiment RLC , who not only provides all the mainland IEDD capabilities, but also provides detachments for Op TELIC Iraq and Afghanistan
PSBT
US EOD covers both on and off base calls in the US unless there is a local PSBT or "Public Safety Bomb Technician" that can handle the IED - ordnance should only be handled by the EOD experts. Also called a "Hazardous Devices Technician", PSBTs are usually members of a Police department, although there are teams formed by fire departments or emergency management agencies.

To be certified, PSBTs must attend the joint U.S. Army-FBI Hazardous Devices School at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama which is modeled on the International IEDD Training school at The Army School of Ammunition, known as the Felix Centre. This school helps them to become knowledgable in the detection, diagnosis and disposal of hazardous devices. They are further trained to collect evidence in hazardous devices, and present expert witness testimony in court on bombing cases.
UXO

Main article: Unexploded ordnance

Before bombing ranges can be re utilized for other purposes, these ranges must be cleared of all unexploded ordnance. This is usually performed by civilian specialists trained in the field, often with prior military service in explosive ordnance disposal. These technicians use specialized tools for subsurface examination of the sites. When munitions are found, they safely neutralize them and remove them from the site.
Other (training, mining, fireworks)
In addition to neutralizing munitions or IEDs, conducting training and presenting evidence, Technicians also respond to other problems. They dispose of old or unstable explosives, such as ones used in quarrying or mining, as well as old or unstable fireworks and ammunition. They escort VIPs and dignitaries. They assist specialist police units, raid and entry teams with boobytrap detection and avoidance. Another function of a EOD Operator is the conducting of post-blast investigations. The EOD Operators' training and experience with improvised explosive devices (IEDs) make them an integral part of any bombing investigation. Another part of a Technician's job involves supporting the government intelligence units. This involves searching all places that the high ranking government officers or other protected dignitaries travel, stay or visit.
Techniques
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Wheelbarrow remotely controlled bomb disposal tool.

Generally EOD render safe procedures (RSP) are a type of tradecraft protected from public dissemination in order to limit access and knowledge, depriving the enemy of specific technical procedures used to render safe ordnance or an improvised device.

Many techniques exist for the making safe of a bomb or munition. Selection of a technique depends on several variables. The greatest variable is the proximity of the munition or device to people or critical facilities. Explosives in remote localities are handled very differently from those in densely-population areas.

Contrary to the image portrayed in modern day movies, the role of the Bomb Disposal Operator is to accomplish their task as remotely as possible. Actually laying hands on a bomb is only done in an extremely life-threatening situation, where the hazards to people and critical structures can't be lessened.

Ammunition Technicians have many tools for remote operations, one of which is the RCV, or remotely controlled vehicle, also known as the "Wheelbarrow". Outfitted with cameras, microphones, and sensors for chemical, biological, or nuclear agents, the Wheelbarrow can help the Technician get an excellent idea of what the munition or device is. Many of these robots even have hand-like manipulators in case a door needs to be opened, or a munition or bomb requires handling or moving.

The first ever Wheelbarrow was invented by Lieutenant-Colonel 'Peter' Miller[3] in 1972 and used by Ammunition Technicians in the battle against Provisional Irish Republican Army IED's.

Also of great use are items that allow Ammunition technicians to remotely diagnose the innards of a munition or IED. These include devices similar to the X-ray used by medical personnel, and high-performance sensors that can detect and help interpret sounds, odors, or even images from within the munition or bomb.

Once the technicians determine what the munition or device is, and what state it is in, they will formulate a procedure to disarm it. This may include things as simple as replacing safety features, or as difficult as using high-powered explosive-actuated devices to shear, jam, bind, or remove parts of the item's firing train.

Preferably, this will be accomplished remotely, but there are still circumstances when a robot won't do, and a technician must put themself at risk by personally going near the bomb. The Technician will don a specialized suit, using flame and fragmentation-resistant material similar to bulletproof vests. Some suits have advanced features such as internal cooling, amplified hearing, and communications back to the control area. This suit is designed to increase the odds of survival for the Technician should the munition or IED function while they are near it.

Rarely, the specifics of a munition or bomb will allow the Technician to first remove it from the area. In these cases, a containment vessel is used. Some are shaped like small water tanks, others like large spheres. Using remote methods, the Technician places the item in the container and retires to a uninhabited area to complete the neutralization. Because of the instability and complexity of modern bombs, this is rarely done.

After the munition or bomb has been rendered safe, the Technicians will assist in the removal of the remaining parts so the area can be returned to normal.

All of this, called a Render Safe Procedure, can take a great deal of time. Because of the construction of devices, a waiting period must be taken to ensure that whatever render-safe method was used worked as intended. While time is usually not on the EOD Operator's side, rushing usually ends in disaster.
EOD Equipment
"Pigstick" is a British Army term for the waterjet disrupter commonly deployed on the Wheelbarrow remotely operated vehicle against IRA bombs in the 1970's. The pigstick is a device that disables improvised explosive devices (IEDs). It fires an explosively-propelled jet of water to disrupt the circuitry of a bomb and thereby disable it with a low risk of detonation. The modern pigstick is a very reliable device and fires many times with minimal maintenance. It is now used worldwide. It is about 485 mm long, weighs 3 kg. It is made of metal, and can be mounted on a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). These factors make it a very effective, safe way to disarm IEDs.
History
The name "pigstick" is an odd analogy coming from the verb meaning “to hunt the wild boar on horseback with a spear.?

It was invented for the British army in 1972; prior to that time bombs would be dismantled by hand, which was obviously very dangerous. It has to be held three inches from the IED to disarm it, still putting the user in danger. So explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) operators started connecting them to Wheelbarrows, and “in the period 1972-1978, and taking into account machines which had been exported, over 400 Wheelbarrows were destroyed while dealing with terrorist devices. In many of these cases, it can be assumed that the loss of a machine represented the saving of an EOD man's life.” [4]
EOD badges
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The EOD Badge.
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The EOD Badge.
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Sayeret Yaalom pin.
British Army
Having been pre-selected for training as Ammunition Technicians soldiers will attend the specialised course at the Army School of Ammunition with both soldiers and officers completing an almost identical course. Only Ammunition Technicians and Ammunition Technical Officers of the Royal Logistics Corps are entitled to wear the flaming A badge on their uniform . If serving in the Corps of Royal Engineers and passing the Explosive Ordnance Disposal course at the Defence Explosive Ordnance Disposal School, Sappers are entitled to wear the EOD badge.

The move in recent years has been to make best use of the specialist training and skills set of the individual services; recognition that each service has its particular strengths within the field of EOD and will be tasked accordingly. EOD support to UK military personnel reflects the tri-service capabilities with the inclusion of subject matter experts from all three services. RLC, RE, RAF and Navy SMEs and operators are tasked through a Joint Service cell depending on the type of ordnance requiring attention.

This joint approach now applies to the manner in which the services are trained and commanded. RLC,RE RAF and RN EOD personnel go through basic IEDD training together, ensuring all can provide the basic capability. The RLC Ammunition Technicians also train in High Threat and Advanced Manual Techniques at The Felix Centre. RE, RAF and RN personnel receive some basic training at Defence EOD School to provide them with the basic EOD skills for use in War and peace support operations in clearing battle fields of mines and explosive remnants of war; a separate skills set reflecting the larger scale of battlefield EOD clearance in deployed theatres. This allows RLC Ammunition Technicians to focus on providing the lead for IEDD in the UK and all overseas theatres of operation, reflecting the many years experience the RLC have in IEDD terrorist/insurgent devices in Northern Ireland, UK, Europe, Iraq and Afghanistan. Within the UK the RLC, RE, RAF and RN are responsible for UK IEDD cover.

Within the UK the RLC are solely responsible for UK IEDD cover High Threat IEDD cover and the disposal of Land service ammunition items, including ammunition used by the Army Air Corps .

Within the UK the Royal Engineers BDOs are responsible for enemy air dropped ammunition

Within the UK the Royal Navy are responsible for ammunition items found below the High Tide mark.
Royal Air Force
Within the UK the Royal Air Force are responsible for UK service airdropped ammunition less ammunition used by the Army Air Corps helicopters like the AH-64 Longbow Apache

No 5131(BD) Squadron (RAF) Mission Statement To deliver and develop EOD capability to support UK defence policy No 5131(BD) Squadron is a sub-unit within the Armament Support Unit which delivers and develops EOD capability to support UK defence policy. Airfield EOD assets provide rapid Explosive Ordnance Clearance (EOC) of Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) and other explosive hazards prior to or during DOB activation. The prime function of this Force Element is the generation of an aircraft Main Operating Surface, Main Aircraft Operating Surface and the EOC of facilities for vital Detached Operation Bases (DOB) installations. Following DOB activation, it provides continuing EOD support to air operations and DOB Force Protection (FP) assets within the FP AOR.

The Squadron will provide a 5-man AEOD C2 team (to integrate within the Force Protection Headquarters). The 3-man EOD teams deploy in Spartan CVR(T) fitted with Clansman (to be replaced with BOWMAN). Force strength deployed will depend upon the threat. Additional EOD personnel are available from non-cadre EOD posts (NFU personnel). During peacetime, the Squadron fulfils Military Task 1 (UK MACP) and Conventional Munitions Disposal - and conducts EOC Tasks across the UK ranging from the clearance of Air Weapon ranges and the land remediation of current MoD sites to the removal of hazard from former chemical weapon storage sites.
United States
US military EOD Technicians are awarded a specialized badge upon successful completion of school, informally referred to as a 'crab'. Civilian PSBTs have a similar badge. The components of the badge each have a special meaning:

* The Wreath: Symbolic of the achievements and laurels gained in minimizing incidents through the ingenuity and devotion to duty of its members. It is in memory of those EOD members who gave their lives while performing EOD duties.
* The Bomb: Copied from the design of the World War II Bomb Disposal badge, represents the historic and major objective of the EOD mission, the unexploded bomb. The three fins represent the major areas of nuclear, conventional and chemical/biological interest.
* Lightning Bolts: Symbolizes the potential destructive power of the bomb and the courage and professionalism of EOD personnel.
* The Shield: Represents the EOD mission -- to prevent a detonation and protect the surrounding area and property to the utmost.

Israeli
The Israeli military EOD technicians wear the badge and pin of Yaalom unit, after the SAP unit was merged with Sayeret Yael and grew up to other fields as well.
Canadian
The Canadian military EOD Technicians wear this patch:

Combat Engineers, Air Weapons Technicians and Clearance divers are all candidates for EoD training.
Unexploded ordnance (or UXOs/UXBs, sometimes acronymized as UO) are explosive weapons (bombs, bullets, shells, grenades, land mines, naval mines, etc.) that did not explode when they were employed and still pose a risk of detonation, potentially many decades after they were used or discarded. While "UXO" is widely and informally used, munitions and explosives of concern (MEC) is the current preferred terminology within the remediation community.

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Extremely corroded Iraqi artillery shell dating from the Gulf War of 1991. Live and dangerous.

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Discarded RGD-5 hand grenade (live but unfuzed) in Northern Kuwait dating from 1991.
Unexploded ordnance worldwide
Unexploded ordnance from at least as far back as the First World War still poses a hazard worldwide, both in former combat areas and on military firing ranges. A major problem with unexploded ordnance is that over the years the detonator and main charge deteriorate, frequently making them more sensitive to disturbance, and therefore more dangerous to handle. There are countless examples of civilians tampering with unexploded ordnance that is many years old - often with fatal results. Believing it to be harmless they handle the device and it explodes, killing or severely injuring them. For this reason it is universally recommended that unexploded ordnance should not be touched or handled by unqualified persons. Instead, the location should be reported to the local police so that EOD professionals can render it safe. Civilians are sometimes even told not to use phones and radio devices nearby, as the signals may trigger the device.

In the Ardennes region of France, large-scale citizen evacuations were necessary during UXO removal operations in 2001. In the forests of Verdun French government "demineurs" working for the Department du Deminage still hunt for poisonous, volatile, explosive munitions and recover about 900 tons every year. The most feared are corroded artillery shells containing chemical warfare agents such as mustard gas. According to the film "Aftermath", these demineurs "have gathered more than twenty million shells but have lost six hundred demineurs. At the current speed, France will be fully cleared and safe - in seven hundred years." French farmers still find many UXOs when ploughing their fields; the so-called "iron harvest."
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German artillery shell from WWI (1914-1918) left beside a field for disposal by the army in 2004 near Ieper in Belgium. Live and dangerous.

A dramatic example of the threat of UXO is the wreck of the SS Richard Montgomery off the coast of Kent, which still contains 3000 tons of munitions. When a similar World War II-era wreck, the Polish Kielce exploded in 1967, it produced an impact measuring 4.5 on the Richter scale.

According to US Environmental Protection Agency documents released in late 2002, UXO at 16,000 domestic inactive military ranges within the United States pose an "imminent and substantial" public health risk and could require the largest environmental cleanup ever, at a cost of at least $14 billion. Some individual ranges cover 500 square miles (0 km), and, taken together, the ranges comprise an area the size of Florida.

In addition to the obvious danger of explosion, buried UXO also entails the risk of environmental contamination. In some heavily-used military training areas, munitions-related chemicals such as explosives and perchlorate (a component of pyrotechnics and rocket fuel) can enter soil and groundwater. A prominent example exists at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) on Cape Cod, Massachusetts (USA), where decades of artillery training has contaminated the only drinking water for thousands of surrounding residents. An expensive UXO recovery effort is under way there.

The country of Laos has the distinction of being one of the world's most heavily bombed nations. During the period of the American Vietnam War, over half-a-million bombing missions dropped more than 2 million tons of ordnance on Laos, most of it anti-personnel cluster bombs. Each cluster bomb shell contained hundreds of individual bomblets, "bombies", about the size of a tennis ball. An estimated 30% of these munitions did not detonate. Ten of the 18 Laotian provinces have been described as "severely contaminated" with artillery and mortar shells, mines, rockets, grenades, and other devices from various countries of origin. These munitions pose a continuing obstacle to agriculture and a special threat to children, who are attracted by the toy-like devices.

In the aftermath of the 2006 war between Israel and Lebanon, it is estimated that southern Lebanon is littered with[1] one million undetonated cluster bombs - approximately 1 ½ bombs per Lebanese inhabitant of the region, dropped by Israeli Defense Forces in the[2] last days of the war.
In the United Kingdom
UXO is standard terminology in the UK, although in artillery, especially on practice ranges, an unexploded shell is referred to as a blind, and during the Blitz in WWII an unexploded bomb was referred to as an UXB. Most current UXO risk is limited to areas, mainly in London, that were subject to the Blitz and to land used by the military to store ammunition or to train on.
Detection technology
Modern techniques can combine geophysical and survey methods with modern electromagnetic and magnetic detectors. This provides digital mapping of UXO contamination with the aim to better target subsequent excavations, reducing the cost of digging on every metallic contact and speeding the clearance process. Magnetometer probes can detect UXO and provide geotechnical data before drilling or piling is carried out.

Currently in the U.S., the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), and Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Department of Defense programs fund research into not only the detection, but also discrimination of UXO from scrap metal. Much of the cost of UXO removal comes from removing non-explosive items that the metal-detectors identified, so improved discrimination is critical. New techniques such as shape reconstruction from magnetic data and better de-noising techniques (to name a few) will prove invaluable to reducing cleanup costs and enhancing recovery

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Ultima Online was one of the first large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX, which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own private servers. The best place to discuss the private server is at Trik- The Master of Private Server.

Another useful site is Rune Web ruwb.com . This site is about more serious RuneScape gold trading, account exchange, gold for real life cash and many services. It includes tips on how to avoid getting lured/scammed while using the marketplace. For programming, visual basics, java, C/C++, scar and all other languages such as PHP, HTML, ASP, Delphi. There are also sections for graphics talents, plus many cool videos and fun stuff.

A defining moment in internet gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an ultimate game forum, which they named hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community, and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with a community and economy. Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you want to join right now!

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